Communications and Media

The paper investigates various aspects relating to attachment theory. The introduction gives the background information concerning the theory. The brains behind the attachment theory, John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth, are mentioned in the introduction. The body of the paper is a literature review of different works in the field. Authors like Inge Bretherton, Erin J. Lee, Maren Cardillo and Cristina E. Eagan are reviewed. There is a general summary or assessment of the theory. The conclusion sums up discussion.

Attachment refers to an emotional connection to another human being. John Bowlby described attachment as a lasting psychological connectedness between human beings (Bowlby, 1969, p. 194). The early proponents of Attachment Theory John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth opened doors for the theory. Bowlby worked on the basic principles, drawing on concepts from various fields like ethology, developmental psychology, and a lot more. It was he who provided the breakthrough about how offspring gets attached to their mothers and the way that association is terminated through separation, death and deprivation. Ainsworth created a methodology that made it possible to test Bowlbys ideas. Additionally, she expanded theory from what Bowlby had done and she is the theorist behind the course that the theory is presently taking. She developed the model of attachment figure as a safe foundation from where a baby gets to discover the world. She is also the theorist behind material sensitivity to infant signals and its responsibility in the attachments between infants and their mothers. The theory has been developing for a long time and the work of John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth had some influence from that of Freud and other theorists in the field (Lee, 2003).

Attachment theory and communication
The concept of attachment involves two or more people interacting with each other. This evidently paved the way to the study of communication in this aspect, including concepts like cybernetics, information processing, interpersonal communication, and a lot more. It is not possible for human beings to communicate effectively and in a friendly manner without having a connection. Attachment theory was also extended to adult communications, especially in romantic relationships. Attachment theory is the basis in the development of the concepts behind human interactions and communication. Therefore, it can be argued that attachment theory is the foundation of human communication and interrelations. This paper investigates various concepts related to attachment theory. It is basically a review of literature in this field.

Inge Brethertons The Origins of Attachment Theory John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth outlines the early beginnings of the theory and how it was finally made as such (Bretherton, 1992). It details how this theory applies to various fields and how it has influenced a lot of perspectives. Bowlby focused on childhood development, but the theory he developed was extended to many other fields in human interrelations and communication.

The early beginning of the theory is concerned with the significance of the attachment between an infant and the mother or the caregiver. This attachment is natural and is comprised of a number of element instinctual reactions that functions to bind the infant to the caregiver. These element reactions such as suckling, clinging among others developed separately in the initial year of life. The responses become incorporated and focused on the caregiver in the second six months. After his discussion on the initial development of the baby, Bowlby came up with ethological concepts. These included the sign cues or social releasers that lead to particular reactions to be triggered and ended. Bowlby held to the belief that the initial connection that is developed between a baby and the caregiver is crucial as the child continues to grow.

To fully develop the theory, Bowlby evaluated a variety of disciplines. These disciplines include evolutionary science, psychoanalysis, ethology and communicative psychology, among others.
Attachment actions are adaptive. Human evolution has involved selection that leads to adaptation. Adaptation is what makes survival possible (Bretherton, 1992).  

Despite the fact that attachment in children to caregivers remained the focus of the theory for very many years, it was later developed to adult attachment in the 1980s. The theory in this sense deals with romantic relationships in adults. There are other perspectives that the theory was extended to peer interrelations at all ages, and the relationship between caregivers and the ailing or the elderly. In romantic relationships, many studies have been established to establish how the attachment is related to the one between infants and caregivers. There are some aspects that reveal similarities between the two while others tend to reveal differences (Bretherton, 1992).

Erin J. Lees The Attachment System throughout the Life Course Review and Criticisms of Attachment Theory talks about the different aspects concerning attachment theory (Lee, 2003). The author looks at all the possible angles of the theory and points out the flaws as well as the strengths of the theory. Some psychoanalysts criticized the theory based on the argument that Bowlby did not consider psychological phenomena. There have been a lot of researches on the theory to come up with the final concept that came to be known as the attachment theory. It was developed in various phases and with studies done to various groups. For example, before a research was carried out in Strange Situation, theorists observed children and their mother in home situation. There were other studies and experimental researches on the same including the Stranger Situation (Lee, 2003).    

The theory has been criticized for not exhaust the description of human communications, and does not mean the same thing as love and affection. This is despite the fact that a connection exists in love and affection. It is argued by critics that the theory is not all inclusive.  There are very many questions that arise concerning the theory and relationship between the infant and the caregiver. Some critics have argued that the connection could be merely connected with the function of feeding. It is also possible that the concept of secure base and internal working theory are mere concepts that do not exist or are supported by practical data. This is because there are no tools developed to in measuring these concepts or data provided to substantiate them. If concepts like attachment security exist, then it should be possible to categorize and measure it (Lee, 2003).        

One of the strengths of the work of Bowlby is the separation he put between the previous social learning theory and the new one that he had come up with. He noted that attachment does not indicate regression, but instead it continues to operate naturally even in adult life. This is true because the theory is seen to be at work even in adult relations. The theory is able to explain attachment, not only in childhood, but also as a person grows into adulthood. It is also used in therapy to help children who have psychological issues due to lack of attachment in the initial years of their life (Lee, 2003).    
Maren Cardillos Intimate Relationships Personality Development Through Interaction During Early Life focuses on how the attachment theory works during the early stages of life  ADDIN EN.CITE EndNoteCiteAuthorCardilloAuthorYear1998YearRecNum3RecNumrecordrec-number3rec-numberforeign-keyskey appEN db-idwze9d0pvpdf5dses50fp5ddzxwxdtrzxzrae3keyforeign-keysref-type nameWeb Page12ref-typecontributorsauthorsauthorMaren CardilloauthorauthorscontributorstitlestitleIntimate Relationships Personality Development Through Interaction During Early Lifetitletitlesdatesyear1998yeardatespublisherNorthwestern Universitypublisherurlsrelated-urlsurlhttpwww.personalityresearch.orgpaperscardillo.htmlurlrelated-urlsurlsrecordCiteEndNote(Cardillo, 1998). It outlines the importance of having a bond or an attachment to another person to an individuals personal growth and well being. As already discovered from the discussion, attachment theory was developed focusing on the attachment between an infant and the primary caregiver. The attachment is developed through the infants need for security and protection. It is important in every infant and child. The theory holds that an infant gets attached to the primary caregiver instinctively in order to survive. The biological reason is survival, while the psychological reason is security. Infants tend to establish the relationship with the primary caregiver who is responsive and sensitive to their requirements. This does not need to be specifically the mother, but any other person who is consistently responsive to their social interactions. This also involves responding to their signals and approaches  ADDIN EN.CITE EndNoteCiteAuthorCardilloAuthorYear1998YearRecNum3RecNumrecordrec-number3rec-numberforeign-keyskey appEN db-idwze9d0pvpdf5dses50fp5ddzxwxdtrzxzrae3keyforeign-keysref-type nameWeb Page12ref-typecontributorsauthorsauthorMaren CardilloauthorauthorscontributorstitlestitleIntimate Relationships Personality Development Through Interaction During Early Lifetitletitlesdatesyear1998yeardatespublisherNorthwestern Universitypublisherurlsrelated-urlsurlhttpwww.personalityresearch.orgpaperscardillo.htmlurlrelated-urlsurlsrecordCiteEndNote(Cardillo, 1998).  

The attachment of children towards more than one person, where they starts to be attached to some people and dismissive tom other begins in their second year. The figures that these children at this age get attached to are hierarchically ordered. The key figure that the child is attached to is usually at the top and will most of the times be the primary care giver.  

The initial relationship is a very crucial part of our life and gets to be a significant part of our life as we grow and face the world. The innate working models are the ones that direct us in future relations  ADDIN EN.CITE EndNoteCiteAuthorCardilloAuthorYear1998YearRecNum3RecNumrecordrec-number3rec-numberforeign-keyskey appEN db-idwze9d0pvpdf5dses50fp5ddzxwxdtrzxzrae3keyforeign-keysref-type nameWeb Page12ref-typecontributorsauthorsauthorMaren CardilloauthorauthorscontributorstitlestitleIntimate Relationships Personality Development Through Interaction During Early Lifetitletitlesdatesyear1998yeardatespublisherNorthwestern Universitypublisherurlsrelated-urlsurlhttpwww.personalityresearch.orgpaperscardillo.htmlurlrelated-urlsurlsrecordCiteEndNote(Cardillo, 1998).    

Pre-attachment characteristics become evident in what is referred to as the initial phase. This is usually during the first eight weeks of life. This is when the child smiles, babbles or cries as a way of attracting the attention of the caregiver. Despite the fact that they learn to be attached to one caregiver, they tend to direct the action to anyone who is nearby. In the second phase, which is between to and six months, the baby begins to discriminate between familiar and unfamiliar faces. They begin to get more responsive and sensitive towards the primary caregiver. Complete attachment becomes apparent in the third phase. This is between half a year and two years. The behavior of the child towards the caregiver gets to be organized and goal-oriented. By the time the baby is one year, they start to reveal a variety of attachment actions that are designed to ensure security. The child at this time will always want to be close to the caregiver, he or she begins to protest their departure, and to welcome their arrival. The child begins to explore the environment around him, and the exploration seems to be more when the caregiver is around. This is because they have developed the sense of security whenever the caregiver is in the vicinity. Anxiety, sickness and fatigue will make the child to increase the attachment actions. After the child is two years, the relationship begins to change. This is because at this time the child begins to see the caregiver as an independent person.

The relationship that develops during this period is a more complicated and goal-corrected. This is not just an attachment, but a relationship in form of a partnership. During this time, they have developed their feelings and are in a position to plan their actions efficiently  ADDIN EN.CITE EndNoteCiteAuthorCardilloAuthorYear1998YearRecNum3RecNumrecordrec-number3rec-numberforeign-keyskey appEN db-idwze9d0pvpdf5dses50fp5ddzxwxdtrzxzrae3keyforeign-keysref-type nameWeb Page12ref-typecontributorsauthorsauthorMaren CardilloauthorauthorscontributorstitlestitleIntimate Relationships Personality Development Through Interaction During Early Lifetitletitlesdatesyear1998yeardatespublisherNorthwestern Universitypublisherurlsrelated-urlsurlhttpwww.personalityresearch.orgpaperscardillo.htmlurlrelated-urlsurlsrecordCiteEndNote(Cardillo, 1998).  

During the development of a child from being a baby to a young boy or girl, attachment actions loosed some traits to become age-related actions. The pre-school age for example tends to use negotiations and bargaining. The kind of attachment that was available to the child as he or she is growing up determines the capability of that child to handle peer relationship. A child who lacks a strong attachment based early in life tends to become socially incompetent  ADDIN EN.CITE EndNoteCiteAuthorCardilloAuthorYear1998YearRecNum3RecNumrecordrec-number3rec-numberforeign-keyskey appEN db-idwze9d0pvpdf5dses50fp5ddzxwxdtrzxzrae3keyforeign-keysref-type nameWeb Page12ref-typecontributorsauthorsauthorMaren CardilloauthorauthorscontributorstitlestitleIntimate Relationships Personality Development Through Interaction During Early Lifetitletitlesdatesyear1998yeardatespublisherNorthwestern Universitypublisherurlsrelated-urlsurlhttpwww.personalityresearch.orgpaperscardillo.htmlurlrelated-urlsurlsrecordCiteEndNote(Cardillo, 1998).

Cristina E. Eagans Attachment and Divorce Family Consequences talks about the effects of attachment and the attachment theory to cases of family distress that could lead to divorce and separation  ADDIN EN.CITE EndNoteCiteAuthorEaganAuthorYear2004YearRecNum4RecNumrecordrec-number4rec-numberforeign-keyskey appEN db-idwze9d0pvpdf5dses50fp5ddzxwxdtrzxzrae4keyforeign-keysref-type nameWeb Page12ref-typecontributorsauthorsauthorCristina E. EaganauthorauthorscontributorstitlestitleAttachment and Divorce Family Consequencestitletitlesdatesyear2004yeardatespublisherRochester Institute of Technologypublisherurlsrelated-urlsurlhttpwww.personalityresearch.orgpaperseagan.htmlurlrelated-urlsurlsrecordCiteEndNote(Eagan, 2004). This shows certain consequences of the concept of attachment to the family, that indeed, there is also a negative side to this theory. Attachment in romantic relationships is an area that is undergoing a lot of investigation currently. It has been argued that if romantic relations are attachment relations, then it should be evident that some sort of personal differences are evident in such relationships just as in the relationships between babies and caregivers as described by Ainsworth. It is expected for some people to feel secure in their marriage while others fail to feel so. This is what is discussed by the styles of attachment and are what determines the strength or romantic relationships. The developers of the theory in relation to relationships between mature people identified four styles. The four are secure, dismissive-avoidance, anxious-preoccupied, and fearful-avoidance. These styles are defined by the characteristics of people in relationships  ADDIN EN.CITE EndNoteCiteAuthorEaganAuthorYear2004YearRecNum4RecNumrecordrec-number4rec-numberforeign-keyskey appEN db-idwze9d0pvpdf5dses50fp5ddzxwxdtrzxzrae4keyforeign-keysref-type nameWeb Page12ref-typecontributorsauthorsauthorCristina E. EaganauthorauthorscontributorstitlestitleAttachment and Divorce Family Consequencestitletitlesdatesyear2004yeardatespublisherRochester Institute of Technologypublisherurlsrelated-urlsurlhttpwww.personalityresearch.orgpaperseagan.htmlurlrelated-urlsurlsrecordCiteEndNote(Eagan, 2004).

Studies have shown that romantic attachments have a lot in common with infant-caregiver attachment. For instance, in the two, there is the tendency to feel safe when the other partner is around. They also tend to turn to the other person when they have problems, and use them as a secure foundation on which to explore the environment. They also tend to communicate to each other using cues and unique language that they both understand. The negative side of attachment is evident where any of these is missing. Just as lack of these aspects is detrimental to a child, it is also detrimental to a romantic relationship or marriage. There is always the worry in people in relationships who feels that their partners do not love them the way they deserve. In this case, it is hard for such a relationship to persist. This kind of distress is likely to tear a family or a marriage apart leading to divorce. This means that attachment can make or break a romantic relationship. Attachment in romantic relationship is not similar to that between an infant and caregiver. This is because in romantic relationship it requires to be reciprocated. Where it is reciprocated, the relationship is likely to endure, but one-sided the likelihood is minimal  ADDIN EN.CITE EndNoteCiteAuthorEaganAuthorYear2004YearRecNum4RecNumrecordrec-number4rec-numberforeign-keyskey appEN db-idwze9d0pvpdf5dses50fp5ddzxwxdtrzxzrae4keyforeign-keysref-type nameWeb Page12ref-typecontributorsauthorsauthorCristina E. EaganauthorauthorscontributorstitlestitleAttachment and Divorce Family Consequencestitletitlesdatesyear2004yeardatespublisherRochester Institute of Technologypublisherurlsrelated-urlsurlhttpwww.personalityresearch.orgpaperseagan.htmlurlrelated-urlsurlsrecordCiteEndNote(Eagan, 2004).    

Assessment of the theory as it relates to interpersonal communication
The attachment theory is an integral aspect of interpersonal communication because it deals with a multitude of people instead of just individuals. Most of the situations presented involve the family or other groups of people, showing us that this is indeed a matter of great importance. It can be applied to our daily relationships and interactions. It is a must to study and understand the attachment theory in order to learn more about interpersonal communication (Fraley  Shaver, 2000).

It is basic to any kind of communication, because communication cannot take place without a connection. Human interactions begin when the child is born. The child learns to communicate with the primary caregiver in its own unique way. This is made possible through the infant-mother or infant-caregiver attachment. Attachment theory gives emphasis on the significance of intimate relationships throughout an individuals life. The ability to establish a close and satisfying relationship is the most crucial task in developing personality. The accomplishment of significant and fulfilling interpersonal life is dependant with a number of traits, among them trust and collaboration. This cannot work without having attachment to the other person. Attachment is what makes it possible for people to forgive and accommodate each other. It is what makes it possible to tolerate, accommodate and forgive the unavoidable flaws of the other person (Fraley  Shaver, 2000).

Conclusion
Attachment is very important in human beings as social beings. As seen from the research attachment begins very early in human life. Failure to achieve this brings about negative effects in life. The negative effects are not experienced only in childhood, but also later in life. Children have suffered a lot of psychological problems due to deprived attachment early in their life. Despite the fact that the kind of attachment evident in adult life is not similar to that in babies, studies have put forward the evidence that infancy attachment have an implication in later relationships. For instance, the people who have secure attachment in childhood, tend to develop self-esteem, and are in a better position to develop lasting relationships. They are also in a better position to disclose to others. This reveals the fact that attachment is important in relationships and communication.

In the short story The Dead by James Joyce, the patterns of communication can be said to be highly influenced by the context of the situation, particularly the culture of the characters. Before dwelling on the analysis of the communicative events in this work of fiction, I deem that it is important to set first the larger context of the story.

The Dead is included in a collection of fifteen stories entitled Dubliners written by James Joyce. James Joyce was an Irish and used to be a stern member of the Irish people who hankered for Irelands separation from England. As we know, Ireland used to be a colony of England (or Great Britain now). The setting of the story was in Ireland and the dominant culture was that of Ireland. The more specific location of the story was at a middle-class place where people who are relatively well-off are found. Most of the parts of the story were in a gathering of sorts that is called Misses Morkans annual dance (Joyce 175). This is also where most of the conversations have transpired.

Upon reading the novel, I can characterize the communications that occurred as being rather stiff and staged, if not intentionally formal. There were no obvious gestures of being fun and the communications were not marked by being natural and jolly. The characters ways of communicating seem to be dictated by unseen forces that impel them to behave that way. Regarding the roles of the characters, since most of them were all coming from the middle class, as said earlier, they were mostly equals. There was no notable occurrence of communications where the factor of the interlocutors roles influenced the communicative process. There was a mutual respect and recognition to the other person so there was no apparent power relations that shaped the communication  at least on the surface.

Since Ireland at that time was divided when it comes to the union with England, their country was exposing different facets of their society. The particular facet which Joyce showed in Dubliners specifically in The Dead, was the dimension of monotony in Ireland. Being overly dependent upon England for a long time, the Irish people have seemed to live in a clockwork manner. They were shaped according to Englands manhandling of them and they were somewhat robbed off the freedom to think for themselves and act independently. This was the prevalent culture in Ireland during those times. This is the same culture which Joyce simultaneously portrayed and critiqued in his works. We will see later how this culture of being mechanical and being monotonous led to a communication that is stiff and unnatural.

I will begin my exemplifications with one of the few instances of conversations where roles factored into the process of dialogue. The conversation went on between Lily, the daughter of the caretaker, and Gabriel Conroy, one of the well-off visitors to the annual dance. Lily was a young fellow. In addition to that, she was merely a daughter of the caretaker and has nothing significant tot do with the gathering. When she welcomed him upon his arrival, he strike up a little chat with her, asking her in a friendly manner if she still goes to school Tell me Lily, he said in a friendly tone, do you still go to school (Joyce 178). Lilys answer was somewhat bashful, perhaps even intimated by his gesture O, no sir, Im done schooling this year and more (Joyce 178). Lilys response goes to show that her being younger than her interlocutor affected her manner of talking. More than that, she seemed to feel as if she was of lower status than Gabriel Conroy as he was one of the visitors in that grand event. That feeling is perhaps the reason why shyness and not respect was the more dominant tone in her response. Gabriels last statement only confirms his higher role than Lily O, then.  I suppose well be going to your wedding one of the fine days with your young man, eh. (Joyce 178). This retort of Gabriel is something that only a person who enjoys a higher status can have the confidence of saying. Although said in a good-natured manner, Gabriels statement was joking, even teasing Lily.  A feeling of security marks this statement. Gabriel can joke or tease Lily and he is not afraid of the possibility that she might not like his statement because even if she does, he stands on a higher ground and she cannot do something serious to express her repulse to what he has said.

The conversation between Lily and Gabriel is marked by the difference in social roles that influenced their behaviors and their responses to one another. Their perception of one another also contributed to how the verbal exchange turned out to be. Lily perceived Gabriel as someone whom she had to respect, if not really kowtow to. Meanwhile, Gabriel perceived Lily as his subordinate as she was younger than he was.

This observation about Lily and Gabriels conversation is further strengthened by another example. Gabriel offers some money to Lily as it was Christmas time. This act in itself already implies how Gabriel considers Lily. He somewhat condescends at her that is why he offered the money. Lily declined at first, perhaps out of shyness and intimidation again O no, sir Really, sir, I wouldnt take it. (Joyce 178). The use of the word sir already proves Lilys respect for him. With Lilys initial declination, Gabriel persisted so she finally accepts the offer Well, thank you, Sir.

Now, I must proceed to the mechanical and shallow characteristics of the communication which I have already stressed above. This can be seen in the conversations among the pack of people in the annual dance while they were all awaiting the arrival of other visitors.

Its such a relief, said Aunt Kate to Mrs Conroy, that Gabriel is here. I always feel easier in my mind when hes here. Julia, theres Miss Daly and Miss Power will take some refreshment. Thanks for your beautiful waltz, Miss Daly. It made lovely time.

A tall wizen-faced man, with a stiff grizzled moustache and swarthy skin, who was passing out with his partner said
And may we have some refreshment, too, Miss Morkan
Julia, said Aunt Kate summarily, and heres Mr Browne and Miss Furlong. Take them in, Julia, with Miss Daly and Miss Power.
Im the man for the ladies, said Mr Browne, pursing his lips until his moustache bristled and smiling in all his wrinkles. You know, Miss Morkan, the reason they are so fond of me is
He did not finish his sentence, but, seeing that Aunt Kate was out of earshot, at once led the three young ladies into the back room. (Joyce 182)

This series of exchanges seem to be slipshod, almost totally messy. First, Aunt Kate said something to Mrs. Conroy, and then suddenly turned to Miss Daly, thanking her for playing music in the celebration. Then, the tall man with moustache abruptly enters into the scene and talked to Miss Morkan, who was not even mentioned earlier. After that, Aunt Kate spoke again, and this time, talking to Julia and welcoming Mr. Browne and Miss Furlong. Upon arriving, Mr. Browne already opened up a talk but was not able to finish his sentence.

As we can see, the conversation was outwardly jumbled. People were talking one after the other, even without direct reference or clear relevance to what has been said earlier. As they speak, we only witness a clatter of words, piling on top of the other, but not making a coherent whole. There was no clear-cut connection among everyone elses statements, that we may deduce that they were speaking only for the sake of speaking even though they were not exactly meeting on some ground. They were speaking so to make it appear that they are connecting with one another even if they are not.  They were subconsciously playing a make-believe game. They were fooling themselves that they were establishing connection with other people by communicating with them, when in fact, there was no communication at all.

The idea of being mechanical and detached pervade all throughout the story. When Greta asked Gabriel about Molly Ivors, Gabriel was mildly exasperated There were no words, said Gabriel, moodily. (Joyce 191). His answer was stilted, partly out of his desire to hear no more from his wife, Greta, and implicitly stop her from badgering him. When Greta said that she wanted to see Galway again, Gabriels response was also unfeeling You can go if you like, said Gabriel coldly. (Joyce 191). Again, we can sense from this statement that tone of frustration and for the sake of replying and stifling his frustration, he uttered that mechanically.

In general, the communications that occurred among the characters in The Dead was distinguished by their looseness, the lack of a solid coherence within them. Especially in the gathering where several people got to meet and greet one another, the communications were all but personal and intimate. They were fleeting, monotonous and staged -- done only for the sake of doing it.

That kind of communication was clearly ensued by the circumstances of Ireland  the storys setting  during those times. Ireland was still considerably tied to England and that union made them formless  they do not have a definite identity and all their behaviors and thoughts were seemingly patterned with England. As a result, they have become conscious in imitating the ways of the English people, eventually making themselves almost robotic.

It is notable on my part how the people have behaved under the occasion of a gathering that is supposed to be merry and upbeat. In my cultural context, during occasions like that  a party or something  everyone is really excited and perky. Everyone gets to interact and know all the other people in the place and they can communicate to one another with warmth and sincere congeniality. Nothing can be argued as being mechanical or clockwork. Out of fun and excitement, there would be no strangers in the place. The occasion will not end that someone does not know all of the people. Everyone is so friendly and it is mirrored in the way we communicate with other people. The interpersonal communication is also very friendly and convivial as people really want to establish acquaintances with people whom they meet.

This is in sharp contrast with the kind of communication present in James Joyces The Dead. The types of communication we found there is one that is on the brink of becoming a no-communication at all. The verbal exchange among people was clockwork, not being done out of a genuine interest to know how the other person feels or what he thinks about. The cultural pattern of Ireland clearly has a grave effect on the emergence of that kind of communication. A populace that was only with an amorphous identity had to make with a communication that operates only on shallow levels. In that sense, it can be conclude that culture really influences the kind of communication present in a society.

The growing popularity of sports over the past few decades may be attributed to the advancement of mass media, specifically, broadcasting, making it a mainstay of everyday entertainment. With the increased marketability of live sports coverage, the media has created a means to make games more appealing to the audience. For instance, instead of merely providing an objective account of the events, announcers make commentaries to keep the attention of the viewers (Mull, 2009). In this way, the viewers are not only caught up in knowing the events taking place in the game but also in watching the drama brought upon by the commentaries and reports delivered. However, the downside of this situation is that reporting of events becomes subjective to the announcers and broadcasters. Considering that the mass media is a powerful agent of socialization, certain stereotypes   whether consciously or unconsciously imposed by the media   reinforce biased beliefs to society. More often, the targets of this stereotyping are the players from the so-called black race, who have long grappled for equal treatment in society. Unfortunately, this racial bias is often left unrecognized by people (Sharma, 2008) that they tend to simply accept this as normal. While this situation has caught the attention of several researchers, many of them have focused on the content of the media and its effects on the audience and not on the players themselves. As such, little is known on how these stereotypes affect the players who are actively involved in the game. In this regard, the present research will explore on the effects of racial stereotypes portrayed in the media on amateur basketball players who are not merely passive viewers of sports media but also active participants of the sport. More specifically, the study aims to know the difference in stereotype sensitivities between the two groups of subjects   Whites and Blacks   and to know the relationship of stereotype sensitivity to self-esteem and to the perceived performance of players.

Review of Related Literature
Several studies have explored the presence of racial stereotypes in media. However, it was only in the late 1960s when the involvement of racial issues in sports has been paid close attention to (Sabo et al., 1995).  In the next two decades, criticisms against sports media organizations have increased due to the racial stereotyping being perpetuated by commentators, announcers and journalists (Sabo et al., 1995). Today, studies discussing different aspects of racial stereotypes in sports media have accumulated into a large pool of information in this subject matter.

Stereotyping against the black players is said to be rooted from the fact that white people have dominated the media (as cited in Rada  Wulfemeyer, 2005). Given that there has been a huge divide between the two races throughout history and the fact that stereotypes that are already present in society have primed the beliefs of people (Rada  Wulfemeyer, 2005), it is almost inevitable that commentaries and reports become subjective to the perceptions   and even, misconceptions   of the sportscasters (as cited in Rada  Wulfemeyer, 2005). As a result, the biased stereotypes portrayed in media shape the perception and behavior of the viewers such that they are swept by emotions as they watch the game and interact with others (Rada  Wulfemeyer, 2005). Since it is often ignored, continuous exposure to these biased misconceptions eventually leads to the point when these stereotypes become incorporated into one s common knowledge about the world (Rada  Wulfemeyer, 2005). This is the way by which media reinforce biased beliefs to society.

Moreover, stereotypes in sports media coverage may either be derogatory or misleading (Wilson  Sparks, 1999). Misleading stereotypes being portrayed in sports media often involve the issue between physical attributes and cognitive competence. As such, commentators tend to compliment black players due to their athletic ability and physical characteristics and not due to intellect and cognitive competence which are the characteristics that are associated with white players (as cited in Rada  Wulfemeyer, 2005). While it may not sound derogatory, the media, to some extent, portrays blacks as strong players and not really as intelligent ones. This clearly reinforces racial bias.

While racial bias has been present in sports media, it seems that people from different races exhibit different sensitivities to stereotyping. According to Wilson and Sparks (1999), the blacks are more aware of how they are portrayed in media as compared to non-blacks. Yet, this does not mean that non-blacks are not affected by the stereotyping (Wilson  Sparks, 1999). The studies conducted only show that non-blacks generally do not have very comprehensive opinions regarding racial stereotyping in contrast to black individuals (as cited in Wilson  Sparks, 1999).

Meanwhile, there are several effects of racial stereotypes in sports media coverage that have been identified by researchers. For instance, many studies show that black television programming can affect the self-esteem of young black viewers because they perceive the portrayal to reflect upon themselves (as cited in Wilson  Sparks, 1999). In addition, studies also show that racial stereotyping in sports can actually influence the perception of people. Ideally, the basis of the audience s perception towards the performance of the player is the statistical measures of shooting, win-loss percentage and batting average (Rada  Wulfmeyer, 2005). However, according to Mull (2009), media can affect the opinion of the audience regarding the performance of a player. Mull (2009) used the NCAA men s basketball season for 2008-2009 as an example to explain his assertion. Accordingly, the sportscasters had been making predictions that a certain white player would lead the game (Mull, 2009). While the outcome turned out as expected, the statistics later showed that there are actually other players who scored higher throughout the season yet little recognition was given to them (Mull, 2009). This simply shows that even the performance of the players, which is supposed to be objectively construed, is being framed by the media.

Statement of Hypothesis
Blacks are more aware of how they are being portrayed in media as compared to non-blacks (Wilson  Sparks, 1999). Moreover, according to Mull (2009), stereotypes portrayed in media can impose opinions to the viewers with regard to the performance of the athlete. In addition, as cited in Wilson  Sparks (1999), findings of some researchers show that black television programming has an effect on the self-esteem of young black viewers because they perceive the portrayal to reflect upon themselves. Given the results of these related researches, this study is expected to have the following outcomes

Black subjects are more sensitive to racial stereotypes than white subjects
There is a significant relationship between sensitivity to stereotypes and self-esteem among college amateur basketball players.
There is a significant relationship between sensitivity to stereotypes and performance perception.

Method
Study Population
The study population will consist of 100 qualified male college amateur basketball players ages 18-22, regardless of socio-economic status and who would consent to participate in the study. Amateur basketball players will be chosen because they are aware of the rules of the sport and the events that usually take place in the game. The subjects will be divided into two groups based on their perceived racial identity blacks and whites. Each group will have a total of 50 subjects.

Sampling Procedure
A multi-stage sampling procedure will be employed as recruitment strategy in this study. Initially, sign-up sheets will be provided to a chosen city university. Qualified male amateur basketball players will be encouraged to sign up in exchange for a complimentary ticket to a local basketball game. The interested applicants will be asked to answer a biographical questionnaire from which their qualifications will be assessed. Only those who play basketball for leisure and for school activities will be included in the study. Those who have been a member of any national or local basketball league will be eliminated.

Consequently, the qualified applicants will then be divided into two groups based on the racial identity indicated in the biographical questionnaire. The black group will consist of applicants who identified themselves as  black ,  African-American ,  Trinidad and Tobago  and the like (Wilson  Sparks, 1999).  On the other hand, those who identified themselves as  non-black ,  white ,  Caucasian  and other similar descriptions (Wilson  Sparks, 1999) will be included in the white group. The logic of identifying one s race based on this method is to treat the subjective racial experience as a notion independent of other factors (Wilson  Sparks, 1999). Moreover, each group should only have 50 participants. In the event that the number of applicants exceeds the required number, subjects will be randomly chosen from this sample using a list of random numbers.

Instrumentation
In preparation for the study, recorded media coverage of local basketball games held anytime in the 1990s will be subjected to content analysis. The logic for choosing games held in the 1990s is that it is presumed that the subjects may not be familiar with or may have forgotten these games. This is to avoid any biases in the responses of the subjects. Consequently, these records will be subjected to qualitative content analysis using typologies and simple descriptive statistics (Sabo et al., 1995) to identify those that depict a high degree of stereotyping. The parts of the coverage that will be subjected to content analysis are the opening and closing remarks, interview segments and the commentaries made throughout the game (Sabo et al., 1995). Only five of the recorded media coverages with the highest degree of stereotyping will be selected as instruments for the study. All five media coverages should be in the form of audio file hence, those in the form of video will be converted to any audio format.

Furthermore, the tool that will be used to measure the variables is a test questionnaire in the form of Likert scale (i.e., in a response scale of 1 to 5, 1 corresponds to  strongly disagree  and 5 corresponds to  strongly disagree ). The test will be composed of three domains corresponding to the variables being measured. The first domain would contain questions that measure sensitivity towards stereotypes against black players depicted in media coverages of basketball events. The second domain would contain questions that will measure the self-esteem of the subjects. Finally, the third domain will determine the interpretation of success and failure of the subjects. For the last domain, positively stated questions are to be constructed to depict success among white players.

Research Design
A quasi-experimental research design using non-equivalent groups selected through purposive multi-stage sampling procedure will be utilized in this study. As such, the subjects will be given the test that measures the variables only after they have listened to the recorded media coverage of the games that depicted racial stereotypes. Moreover, as mentioned, the test that will be employed will include several domains, each testing for a particular variable. A high score in the domain measuring stereotype sensitivity entails high sensitivity to stereotypes. Similarly, the score in the domain that measures self-esteem is tantamount to the degree of self-esteem felt by the subject. For the last domain, a high score means that the subject believes that the white players are more likely to gain more points. To summarize, the independent variable in this study is stereotype sensitivity while the dependent variables are self-esteem and perceived performance of the players in the game.

Data Collection Procedures
The subjects will be asked to listen to the five selected media coverages of local basketball events that depicted racial stereotypes. Likewise, the actual video coverages of the game will not be shown to the subjects since it might affect their perceptions towards the performance of the players. Instead, they would simply have to listen to the commentaries made by the announcers and broadcasters. After listening to all the recorded media coverages, the test questionnaire will be administered to the subjects. No time limit will be given in answering the test questionnaires. The results of the tests will be encoded in a statistical software for analysis.

Data Analysis
Descriptive statistics will be utilized in comparing sensitivities towards stereotypes between the two groups. As such, the overall score of each group for this variable will be obtained by first getting the average scores of the individual subjects. The mean of the average scores of the subjects belonging to the same group will then be computed. The group with the higher mean score for this variable is the one who is more sensitive to racial stereotypes. Moreover, paired sample t-test will be used to know the significance of association between these two groups.

Likewise, Pearson product moment correlation will be employed in testing the relationship between stereotype sensitivity and self-esteem. The same statistics will be used to analyze the relationship between stereotype sensitivity and perceived performance of players. For these two variables, no comparison will be made between the two groups. Moreover, the direction of relationship will not be identified since it has been mentioned that some stereotypes do not really appear derogatory and may in fact, contribute positively to self-esteem and perceived performance.

Discussion
In comparing sensitivities towards stereotypes, it is expected that the black group will obtain a higher score than the white group. This is in line with the study of Wilson  Sparks (1999) that blacks are more aware of how they are being portrayed in media in contrast to non-blacks. Given that blacks have been discriminated in many aspects, the blacks may have imbibed these discriminatory notions in their beliefs of the real world that they tend to be more receptive to stereotypical ideas presented in media. Since the whites are usually the more favored race, they do tend to oversee these stereotypes that they are usually not affected by them. Moreover, the self-esteem of the subjects who have high sensitivity to stereotypes is presumed to be affected by racial bias. However, the direction of the relation might not be apparent. According to Rada  Wulfemeyer (2005), blacks are usually perceived as physical rather than intellectual individuals. The feelings of individuals towards this stereotype are very subjective such that some may actually see this more of an advantage to the blacks. On the other hand, some may perceive this to be derogatory thus, decreasing self-esteem. The same condition holds true when associating stereotype sensitivity to perceived performance of players. Nevertheless, it is expected that a significant relationship will be obtained when comparing these variables.

Overview of the Radiofrequency Identification Technology
Supply chain covers the distribution activities of the companies and businesses which involve the design, creation, distribution and usage of product or services. The industry relies on its supply chain as this provides the activities which help every business exist and survive. Radiofrequency identification is defined as the use of tags or microchips adhered to items for the purpose of tracking and identification within a firm or an organization as they run throughout the supply chain. The technology is known to be a direct substitute for the barcode technology. The main objective of the RFID tag is to be able to track a unique item throughout its product life cycle. As such, a tag could contain a number of basic information like an item number primarily based on the products electronic product code or EPC as well as its location (Jilovec, 2004, p. 95). Electronic product code is a distinctive number that works as an identifier of specific items in the supply chain. It is definitely stored on an RFID tag which is in combination with a reader and a silicon chip. The retrieval from the tag of electronic product code can be related to the dynamic data that includes the source of an item or the items production date. A radiofrequency identification system is composing of five components tags (also known as transponders), readers, encoders, the middleware and the application software. The following are the description of the various components of the radiofrequency identification technology or RFID

RFID Tag or the Transponder  A usual RFID tag is consisting of a microchip containing data or information. An RFID tag is composed of an antenna, a wireless transducer and an encapsulating material. The antenna functions by means of emitting radio signals to activate the RFID tag making data transmitted back and forth. These tags can be either active or passive. While the active tags have on-chip power, passive tags use the power induced by the magnetic or other field of the RFID reader. RFID tags also differ in terms of physical size and form (Martocchio, 2006). These tags range from small RFID devices that are inserted within the skin of livestock or sea creatures for the purpose of tracking their movements, up to credit card sized devices employed for other business oriented applications. In addition, RFID tags are also different in terms of their reading and frequency range. Similar to compact discs, RFID tags come in three classifications in the way data is being encoded to them. Read-only tags which is considered the least expensive among the three classifications, have a low capacity and a short read range and are usually containing the basic information of the item they are representing (Angeles, 1979). Meanwhile, read-write once tags are almost similar to the read only tags but these type of tags have the capacity to have additional data written to them one at a time. Finally, read-write many tags are considered the pricey of the three types of tags among the three but considered the most flexible allowing data to be written to the tags as many times as needed throughout the operations of the supply chain.

RFID reader or transceiver  The RFID reader or transceiver is the device use for the sending of radiofrequency signals to the tags for the request of the necessary data which it collects in a digital format. An RFID reader consists of an antenna, transceiver and decoder, which sends periodic signals to inquire about any tag in the vicinity. On receiving any signal from a tag it passes on that information to the data processor.

RFID encoder- Encoders are a type of RFID readers with the capability of writing the data to tags. Depending on a companys specific needs, it may need an encoder with full writing capabilities making it possible to write additional data into an embedded tag of RFID.

Middleware  Considered as a necessary and significant part of an RFID system, middleware is acting as the interface between the RFID system and the applications with which the data must eventually be integrated. The middleware software also works for the generation of an interoperable system especially when multiple vendor products or items are involved.

Application Software  RFID related software empowers the company to manage its various compliance needs face from different types of consumers. It gives the company the ability to use various standards of radiofrequency identification. Flexibility of application software is significant in meeting or handling dual systems.

Areas of Application of RFID
The radiofrequency identification technology can be used in various ways and is not only intended for the tagging of products. For instance, the technology is also being used for employee identification cards that authenticate the holder before given the permission to enter a facility (Rushton, et al, 2006). A related use of the RFID technology is for access of events in amusement parks, concerts and ski areas wherein tagged tickers or bracelets are being employed. RFID is also being deployed in the related contexts of transportation. A great instance would be the use of the technology in authenticating the keys use by the driver that adds a greater layer of security in starting to drive a car. Also a significant example would be the birth of the Speedpass allowing drivers to buy gasoline and goods from the convenience store from various ExxonMobil stations. In the like manner, RFID technology is also being used with the introduction of the E-ZPass in Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern states in the United States allowing drivers to pass on toll gates without stopping to pay for the price of the toll fee (Tabrizi, 2006). The system works by way of installing an active tag on a vehicles windshield that allows the reader installed on the tollbooth to have knowledge that a tagged vehicle is approaching, wherein the checking account or prepaid account is charged related to that vehicle.

The technology is now being utilized in distribution centers, warehouses other phases of the supply chain operations of the private sector with the initial use of the Wal-Mart company. Meanwhile, in the public sector, the RFID technology is now being employed which begun with the acquisition of the technology of the United States Department of Defense.  It is primarily being utilized by government agencies to meet objectives similar to their counterparts in the private sector. The mandate of the US Department of Defense stated in October of 2003 outlined that they are requiring suppliers to utilize tags of RFID by the year 2005 to local systems of library employing the technology for the purpose of tracking and tracing their books. As such, the main goal of the policy was the promotion of better inventory management with the assistance of a faster hands-off processing as the Department not only purchased military products but also include consumer products that it seeks efficiency in its supply chain operations. The initiative of the US Department of Defense could reportedly affect the almost 43,000 military suppliers of the agency. Likewise, public libraries in various states have executed internal systems of RFID for the facilitation of managing stock and patron usage. The United States Food and Drug Administration is also utilizing the technology for the purpose of fighting drug counterfeiting while the United States Department of Homeland Security utilizes the technology for the purpose of tracking baggage of travelers.

Impact of the RFID technology on Business
Various firms especially small and medium sized enterprises are wondering of the return on investment of the technology when implemented in their supply chain operations. Multinational companies like Wal-Mart had initially tested the benefits derived from the RFID technology as well as the United States Department of Defense (Jones and Chung, 2007). The technology is expected to generate significant benefits for the supply chain. Major benefits include the reduction of inventory, reduction of the level of out-of stock items, and the reduction of labor expenses. Advantages of the technology also include the accurate reading of products and the ability to survive demanding environments as well as the elimination of line-of-sight necessities (Venkatesh, 2007). Read precision is frequently a serious factor in choosing RFID. With fixed location barcode readers, realizing a first-pass read precision of 95 to 98 is fairly reputable.

Additional advantages of the RFID technology include reduction of theft and improved management of the warehouse. With the benefit of the technology in improving the visibility of products as well as the levels of inventory at the shelf level, retail systems could automatically order stocks only when the need arises that aids a company to improve its forecasting capability and considerably reduced times for the cycle of orders. With the automated systems available for organizations with the help of the RFID technology, business enterprises incur less people and administrative expenses especially in the management of supply chain management operations. Possibly, the greatest known benefit of the RFID system would be the increase in sales of a company due to the fact that the technology has the capability of reducing out-of-stock situations. The fact that the retail industry suffers significant losses of between 180 and 300 billion yearly due to poor supply chain visibility provides the great opportunity to adopt the practices of the RFID technology (Federal Trade Commission, 2005, p. 59).

For small retailers, the costs of implementation are normally considered as one-time expense especially for the acquisition of the readers and the needed software, giving them the ability to recover the costs afar the initial time. In the case of Wal-Mart Corporation, tags that are situated on cartons and pallets provide the ability for the accurate tracking of shipments or items to distribution centers and warehouses.

Product manufacturers are also benefiting from the advances made by the radiofrequency identification technology. With the attachment of RFID tags on items, a manufacturer also gains higher visibility to the levels of inventory within its distribution centers and warehouses (Hugos, 2006). In addition, the presence of more automated systems means a reduction of manual cycle counts or lesser use of the bar code scanning technology. Likewise, manufacturers are also significantly benefiting from the efficient processing of the operations in their dock and carrier utilization. Presently, the greatest benefit of the RFID system for product manufacturers came from the increased visibility of the activities in the store level. To be specific, data on sales from retail stores can now be sent with the employment of the RFID with the tagging of the products or items. This gives manufacturers instant access to trends on sales and patterns of buying, offering them the capability of checking the effectiveness of programs on promotions and making it feasible to refill stock as quickly as items are deemed delayed.

Other benefits of radiofrequency identification include the improvement in the quality of products. In particular, the use of the RFID makes it quicker and easier to tag items than the traditional laser bar code reading. In the like manner, the radiofrequency identification technology is also beneficial especially in shortening the various processes of the supply chain operations (Wolfram, et al, 2008). It is because of the fact that RFID technologies can be integrated with other technologies in the area of supply chain like stock picking systems and automated pallet handling which highly reduced the time from order to dispatch and delivery. Another benefit of the technology was its potential to significantly trim down capital costs. RFID technologies are crucial for the reduction of inventory costs by offering better control of the stock and can also be utilized to effectively administer business assets like computing technology, test equipment and other forms of portable devices.

Radiofrequency identification is also contributory to the improvement of regulatory compliance (Finkenzeller and Waddington, 2003). This benefit refer to the use of RFID to control when items are undergoing inspection which form part to the strategy of improving safety and health issues. Likewise, RFID provides better security as access control systems make use of the technology that contribute to the security of business premises including tracking inventory shrinkage and the increased awareness against product piracy or counterfeiting. Finally, the technology offers accuracy and relevancy of current management information because it allows data to be captured in real-time as stocks or assets moved making management information available for operational management and planning activities.

The development of digital technologies including telecommunication, and computer has stimulated the reach of the innovations of the Internet that is initiated from inter-university computer networks in the United States. As internet provides many benefits including eliminating the borders of time and space, people continue experiencing many benefits as they can virtually talk to other people in the matter of seconds or real time, which refers to the creation of online community.

Concerning the online community, this paper will elaborate the discussion on the history of online communities, which include the history and development, type of online communities, and examples of social networking strategy and website features especially facebook in developing their online communities.

History of Online Communities
Past
Origins and Development
The internet was primarily used for correspondence and programming. The concept moved rapidly into the social realm, into networking and making new associates or friends. This is the seed of online communities. One of the first online communities was called The Well, created in 1984, which is a site for people to exchange stories and perspectives. There was also Newsgroup, which was a place for business people to share news and updates. These websites were very simply managed, without advanced features and facilities like the one we know now (Cassidsy, 2007).

Today however, we have the modern social networking web design, which makes it possible for everyone to design their own environment within the internet to interact with friends. Online communities have also developed in the extent that most people would not predict so. Online social networking companies like MySpace, Facebook and Yahoo groups have made billions by providing people with creative means of communication in the internet.

Types of Online Communities
Online community or better known as the virtual community is a social network of individuals interacting through specific media, in order to achieve specific goals. The interaction may cross-geographical and political boundaries and the goals may vary. It can be for business-specific targets or simply leisure activities. The term was born along with the birth of the World Wide Web. It is first come to public from a book Virtual Community, by Howard Rheingold, 1993.

Figure1 Common types of online community
Online community is developed due to the similar concerns, preferences and needs. In order to maintain the traffic to their site, usually, the site managers will provide many features such as quiz to ensure that their customers return and make business. Other features include encouraging the user-friendly medium, virtual classrooms, and online discussion among restricted peers (Boyd and Ellison, 2010).

As the concerns, preferences, and needs are diverse among users, the online community itself develop into several sub groups including the social networking, grassroots communities, and customer communities, to name a few. Figure 1 displays the three general types of online communities in online domain.

Effects
In addition to the development of social networking, online communities have been used frequently as business tools. It is common way doing business and online trading companies like Ebay, Earthweb and Xoom have experienced phenomenal growth due to this new trend. Some tried to separate the use of internet between websites that are used for social interactions and websites that are used for business interactions. These efforts have failed notably because any online network today can be used interchangeably as social networking tools as well as business tools.

Present
Development of social networking case of facebook
Current applications that continue dragging many users are social network websites. They include the Friendster ( HYPERLINK httpwww.friendster.com www.friendster.com), My Space ( HYPERLINK httpwww.myspace.com www.myspace.com), Twitter ( HYPERLINK httpwww.twitter.com www.twitter.com) and the continually growing Facebook ( HYPERLINK httpwww.facebook.com www.facebook.com). These applications refer to the online communities where people can share information with their counterparts in timely manner.

Social networking is one example of online communities that grows in the internet domain. This community refers to community that is created in the virtual world in which their members can share anything and do any membership rituals such as posting messages for all members or restricted members, share personal information including figure where it becomes one way to communicate with other people in real life, and many others.

Mark Zuckerberg discovered Facebook in 2004, using an initial investment of US 500,000. In later days, partners chip-in millions more, even though in the fiscal year 2005 the company reported a net loss of 3.63 million. Facebook was originally a software-networking website dedicated and restricted only for Harvard College students. The website receives enormous attention from college students and only one month since its introduction, half of the Harvard college students were registered onto the social networking website. The website then expanded to Stanford, Columbia, Yale and various other Universities in the United States (Philips, 2007).

In the end of 2005, more than 2,000 colleges and 25,000 high schools in the United States, Canada and United Kingdom had networks registered on Facebook. In the later part of 2006, Facebook became open to the public. After the website has been opened to the public, its number grew even further to include offices and companies around the world.

Strategy
There are several different perspectives regarding the causes of Facebooks strategic methods. Most of them however, agreed that Facebooks success was based on the simplest and most effective marketing tool, which is word-of-mouth. Taking advantage of the social nature of human beings, it is appropriate for Facebook to focus its business marketing strategy simply by getting people to talk to other people about their products and services. Others however, believed that Facebooks success is built from its unique offering of services and from a series of fortunate or supportive events. This popularity put social networking like Facebook to be the second most used online communities after hobby-oriented online communities as shown in the figure 2.

Website Features
Several attributes of Facebook from the analysts point of view refer to the platforms and applications

Powerful platforms
Facebooks platform has three important components, which are identity platform, community platform and application platform. The identity platform underlines the fact that Facebook have rich metadata and they have massive intelligence on users. Users can even see detailed metadata regarding friends connected to them. Other forums and blogs do not provide such detailed amount of users data.

Various applications media embedded and event management
Those are some of the most interesting features Facebook has offered to its consumers. These attributes generate significant progress for the company. For instance, in less than one month, the application sections exploded from hundreds to thousands. Within the system, audio, video and live streaming video are available. The richness of media embedded is one of the value creators of Facebooks services. The affinity groups within Facebook can also organize and promote events from Facebook (Delaney, 2006)

Future Directions
General Tendencies
Online surveys have been carried out regarding online communities. The survey performed in 2004 revealed that 82 of the respondents believed that participation in online communities is still rapidly growing. This means that using existing technologies, people are attracted to the phenomenon of social networking. Still, many people are not touched by the phenomenon and thus the number of participants will continue to increase. On the other hand, the growth of technologies for online communities continues to grow. This means that the potentials to attract more members are still vastly growing. In addition, survey has also revealed that retention of community participants is not a significant problem (Cassidy, 2006).

Nevertheless, in addition to those positive developments of the online community phenomenon, researches have also revealed other realities. It is understood from the research that most organizations today cannot measure return on investment regarding online technologies. Surveys have also revealed that many people still do not understand the meaning of online communities. The overall conclusion remains that the online community phenomenon will continue to grow.

Growth per Technology
Because growth in social trends is caused by revolution in technology, researchers have attempted to measure the effect of each technology on social communities. These measurements are made within two aspect of the community, which are the customers community and the employee community. In the customer community, the oldest technologies, like discussion forums, email discussion lists and newsgroups are the technologies that showed significant declines. The largest growths is shown by team rooms weblogs and social networking. Other technologies that have showed significant progress and expected to continue to grow is instant messaging, text messaging, wireless  mobile and web conferencing. RSS, Wiki and FOAF are expected to grow moderately (Bahney, 2006).

On the other hand, the employee communities revealed different tendencies then elaborated above. Respondents from the employee communities stated that they expect to consolidate among smaller sets of applications. Among the technologies that are expected to loose ground over the coming year are discussion forums, email discussion lists, chat, instant messaging, chat teleconferencing, web conferencing, newsgroup, text messaging and social networking. The largest growth is in wirelessmobile, RSS, expertise location wikis (Boyd, 2004).

Research has also revealed the prominence of certain Social Networking Websites like Friendster and Facebook. Friendster was launched in 2002. The anticipated feature is helping Friends-of-friends meet. This is different from most online dating services. However, as the website becomes popular, it encounters technical and social difficulties (Boyd, 2006b). The servers and databases were not sufficiently equipped to handle its rapid growth. The site jammed regularly and frustrating users.
After the fall of Friendster, Facebook rises and take over its popularity. It began in Harvard in 2004 as a local website only. In 2005, the site expanded through high school students and professionals networks. Unlike Friendster who receives numerous criticisms due to its ill-equipped servers and databases, Facebook was prepared well. The website has more features that made social interactions more fun. Until today, the prominence of Facebook still remain and manages to reach all level of community, both for leisure or business purposes, for individual or institutional needs (Barnes, 2009).

Comparison of References
In this section, we will compare three articles. Each describes the online communities from different perspectives and different period of discussion. The first article is from Boyd and Ellison (2007), which is published in Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication
httpjcmc.indiana.eduvol13issue1boyd.ellison.html. In this article, the authors put great concerns of elaborating the development of Social network Sites (SNSs) especially discussion the features of Social network Sites (SNSs) along with the proposed definition that best describe the definition of SNSs. In addition, the article also discusses the key changes and developments.

The second article is from Cassidy (2006), which title Me media How hanging out on the Internet became big business. This article is published The New Yorker. The objective of this article is to describe the background of Mark Zuckenberg, the invention of facebook. The article details the history of facebook, as Mark Zuckenberg is individual that has interest in software development by learning C programming language prior to the development of the famous social networking sites.

The third article is from Bahney (2006), title Dont talk to invisible strangers, which published in New York Times magazine (httpwww.nytimes.com20060309fashionthursdaystyles09parents.html). The objective of this article is to describe the recent impact of growing social networking sites (SNSs) to children. These concerns emerge as parents fear of the perils that social networking sites may have since many criminals use this social networking sites to influence children. Kidnapping, rape, and other personal injury often starts from the chatting or messaging through social networking. This condition urges the parents to inform their children not to talking to the invisible strangers. It includes features of Social network Sites (SNSs) along with the proposed definition that best describe the definition of SNSs. In addition, the article also discusses the key changes and developments.
Name of ArticleCredibilityAccurateReliabilityRelevanceDateSourceScopeSocial network sites Definition, history, and scholarshipCredible as it published in peer-reviewed journalAccurateThe article cross reference several other journalsRelevance to the discussion of social networking sites2007Journal of Computer-Mediated CommunicationFeatures, proposed definition, key changes, and developmentsMe media How hanging out on the Internet became big businessCredible as it cross-reference previous researchAccurate with limited objectsReliable for becoming the sources for further researchRelevance to the discussion of history of recent development of online communities2006The New YorkerHistory of the invention of facebook etcDont talk to invisible strangersCredible as it is published in leading magazinesMedium as it is not peer-reviewed articleQuite reliable Relevance to the discussion of perils of online communities to the children2006New York Times magazinePerils of social networking sitesonline communities

Conclusion
Concerning the online community, this paper has discussed history of online communities, which include the history and development, type of online communities, and examples of social networking strategy and website features especially facebook in developing their online communities. As the most growing application is social networking, this paper also put emphasis on the discussion of social networking sites.

The idea of counter-culture has always been to challenge the conventional norms, structure and principles existent within the dominant culture. Here, it presents new opportunities and challenges to the status quo and provides new directions for individuals, groups, and organizations to advocate the creation of new meaning in addressing reality. Seeing this, the article by Hardt and Negri offer new directions in analyzing the Internet not only as an instrument used to further capitalist policies but also a necessary requirement for the formulation of new public sphere.

Relating the analysis of Hardt and Negri to the value of commonwealth as the continued pursuit of capitalism for their own individual gains. Here, it presents itself in new faces and ideals that have shaped the development of todays 21st century environment.  Though this may seem to be the case, the ideas employed by Marx continues to be the same - that oppression among different classes continues to exist and thus revolution and radical ideals must be pursued (Hardt and Negri, 2009).

Similarly, the working class also changed to multitudes which highlights the growth of new classes and identities as society began to develop. As Anderson (2009) points out,  the authors prefer the multitude, which includes workers of all kinds, naturally, but also gathers the mighty forces of identity politics black and Hispanic activists, radical feminists, queer transgressives and others purportedly harmed by global capitalism (p.1). Here, the idea of commonwealth corresponds to the notion of eliminating private property for all and equating them as the solutions for the growing disparities between the working class and corporations who continue to exploit these resources altogether. To achieve this, the corrupt must be eliminated and disrupt the current status quo.

Relating the idea of commonwealth to the Internet as a public sphere for multitudes, it can be argued that Hardt and Negri can assert that this increasing preference and trend can be used to further the exploitive means of capitalists and corporations to gain more profit. With the convergence of communication and technology, it has facilitated a sporadic spread of ideals that does not further shows inequality and supporting those who have the means to learn and acquire information. Such direction then reinforces better means of expanding elements for new processes that alienates the multitudes.

Similarly, it also shows the ability to further prejudice and discrimination among other groups and identities. By opening up another avenue for people to interact, commonwealth also argues that it hinders the ability of defining specific parameters related to establishing order and related standards. As Hardt and Negri (2009) provides, capital too functions as an impersonal form of domination that imposes laws of its own, economic laws that structure social life and make the hierarchies and subordinations seem natural and necessary (p. 7). Such analogy then illustrates the ability of the Internet to become a new source of culture where oppression and continued inequality can be addressed.

In the end, the ideas proviedd by Hardt and Negri relating to commonwealth adhere to an example of highlighting counter-culture and how it challenges the conventions and norms surrounding the prevalent culture. By looking into this book in detail, careful analysis can be seen on how such principles both serve to address the ills of the current status quo and what elements constitute the Internet either as an agent of culture or counter-culture. These then bring about harnessing greater means of applying analysis and correlation of its impact to society and individuals in responding to reality.

Women Study
1. What are the two steps in the coming-out process Discuss the complexities of the term queer. Discuss examples of compulsory heterosexuality and obstacles for gays and lesbians in contemporary U.S. society. (25 pts)

The coming-out process consists of two steps. The first step involves a self-realization in which a person must realize or come to terms with what he or she is. This pertains to acknowledging his or her sexual orientation. A person, before he or she decides to become active must first acknowledge that he or she is attracted to the same sex. The second step includes implementation in which a person decides to actually have a same sex partner.

While the term queer to many people may immediately mean one thing, it can have a completely different meaning for others. Generally, the word queer means strange, and many people refer to gays and lesbians as being queer. The problem is, today, how strange is it to be gay or lesbian This is one of the problems this term faces today, and it has faced the same problem 15 or 20 years ago. However, the term queer also refers to a dissident identity, which means that it resists what is classified as normalcy.

U.S. society is largely in the hands of a heterosexual regime. This means that heterosexuality is seen as normal, and homosexuality isnt. Within heterosexuality itself, men have the upper hand. They get to take the major decisions and generally control many aspects of womens lives such as their sexuality, childbirth, child rearing, work, physical movement, etc. Though women are in pursuit of attaining more rights and showing greater progress, there is a long way to go. Indeed, they struggle, and many find a place of prominence though the climb is a tough task. When it comes to gays and lesbians in a heterosexual regime, their struggle is even harder because they dont even fit into the scenario of heterosexuality regime. While men and women have healthcare without many obstacles, the story is very different for gays and lesbians. Additionally, in a heterosexual regime, gays and lesbians largely do not have an easy way up the ladder of progress professionally.

2. What did the eugenics movement hope to achieve and how is this related to the history of sterilization abuse. What were the Comstock laws What Supreme Court ruling legalized contraception for married people When On what basis was the courts decision made What other contraception rulings occurred after this What are the politics involved with contraceptivebirth control access and usage. What kinds of contraceptivesbirth control are currently available (25 pts)
Eugenics aimed at removing weaknesses in human beings by selective breeding. However, this concept quickly turned into a movement, known as the Eugenics Movement, which aimed to achieve the same ends by sterilization of whom were deemed weak or feeble. This is when forced sterilization came into practice. Those who were believed to be carrying genetic weaknesses were forcibly sterilized so that they would not be able to produce offspring that carried the same weaknesses.

Under the Comstock Act it was illegal to distribute, sell or mail information about or related to contraception. This encompassed any information that was considered obscene, lewd, andor lascivious. Contraceptive materials as well as information regarding it could not be mailed according to the law.

In 1965, the Supreme Court Ruling in Griswold v. Connecticut legalized contraception for married people. The ruling held that the Comstock law violated the rights to marital privacy. While the ruling in Griswold v. Connecticut only applied to married couples, in 1972, the Supreme Court also allowed unmarried couples to use contraceptives. This was ruled in Eisenstadt v. Baird.

Allowing contraceptives to be used by unmarried people has eventually allowed misuse of it. Many people are now using it as a means of abortion. This precisely occurs when women use morning after pills, in which a pill can be taken after conception has taken place a few hours earlier.

There is a variety of contraceptive methods available to everyone today. Some of them are used to protect one from sexually transmitted diseases, while others are used simply to prevent pregnancy. However, many are used to abort pregnancies.  There are also some that can be used to drug and abuse women.

The use of different contraceptive methods is quite argumentative as doctors and lawyers have used various viewpoints to validate the availability and use of them. There is a lot of finance involved in their availability as well.

3. Describe the differences between vertical and horizontal segregation and give examples. What is the glass ceiling What are the legislative gains for women and employment between the early 1960s and the end of the twentieth century How much do women earn compared to men How does this vary by race What is comparable worth What is Sexual Harassment Name and explain the different types of sexual harassment Give an example of each type of sexual harassment. (25 pts)Horizontal segregation refers to a situation where a workforce is largely comprises one gender or race, etc. Vertical segregation is akin to the glass ceiling its a situation in which opportunities for a particular gender or race in career advancement are limited or restricted. The glass ceiling is a situation described in the workforce where employees can see opportunities within their reach, but they are not allowed to achieve them due to discrimination that might occur due to sexism, racism, etc. Such a situation for them is virtually like being segregated from those opportunities by a layer of glass that they cant get through.

Legislation in the 1960s favored women when sexual discrimination was outlawed in the U.S. This was done through the Civil Rights Act of 1964. It was aimed at giving women the space to rise in the professional world once they gained experience. However, the problem is that women have still struggled a great deal since then. It has not been easy for them to get jobs at the same level of men despite their qualifications and experience. In recent years, there has been little difference in the wider scenario, as only a handful of women have actually become prominent business owners and top level employees. The political arena is also an example where people still feel that a man is the best one for the most demanding job, as observed in the last general elections.

When competing for a top job, it is usually observed that a man may beat a woman to that spot. However, if a man is black, he may still beat a woman to the top spot. If the competing woman is white, she stands a good chance. And if she is black, her chances are lower.

Comparable Worth was a law introduced in the United States in the 1970s, in the hope of achieving equal pay for men and women in different occupations that had the same worth in terms of value of work. This largely referred to those occupations that were either predominantly by men or women, such as electricians and nurses. The Equal Pay Act of 1963 said that men and women should get equal pay for equal work. However, wages paid for occupations that were traditionally held by women carried on lagging behind in contrast to those that were traditionally male occupations.

Sexual Harassment is any form of harassment against mainly anyone at a workplace. This may occur in the form of psychological battering, verbal abuse, rudeness, vulgar or mocking humor, or even physical contact. Sexual harassment is also described as bullying, coercion or intimidation that carries a sexual tone or attribute. It also includes the promise of rewards for sexual favors.

Quid pro quo sexual harassment takes place when a worker is told that he or she may be retained in an organization in exchange of sexual favors. In the case of students, they may be offered the guarantee of a good grade or good recommendation in exchange for sexual favors.

In a hostile work environment, sexual harassment is known to take place if a co-worker, superior, etc. displays unwelcome sexual advances. These may harm ones work performance or create an environment that is hostile or intimidating. This also applies to the learning environment of students.
Verbal sexual harassment could be marked by one making comments about someones clothing, or looks that is sexual in nature.

Non-verbal sexual harassment can include staring or glaring at a person that makes a person feel uncomfortable.

Visual sexual harassment could involve the display of sexually suggestive images on calendars, posters or cartoons.

Physically sexual harassment takes place when someone massages an employee around the neck or shoulders, which is considered unwelcome and taken as an offense.

4. How does the state function as a conduit for systems of inequality and privilege Give examples of how the state regulates other social institutions. What was the status of women under the original U.S. constitution When did women receive suffrage in the U.S. What Amendment was this When was the Equal Rights Amendment first introduced into Congress What did it hope to counter When was it rewritten What does it say Give an example of women and citizenship rights. What are the obligations associated with citizenship Lastly, list one law (each) passed in the last 40 years that improved womens states in the following areas economics, reproductive rights, education, and military. (25 pts)

The state itself is organized with different institutions that seek to carry out different functions. The organization and makeup of these institutions is what makes the state an effective conduit. The manner in which a state has the ability to deal with different problems depends on the functionality of its institutions. The legislative and executive bodies are integral in this regard. In fact, they are the primary pillars that allow the state to function and work towards improving or removing inequalities. The state also has the responsibility of providing the best possible privileges for its people.
The state is in a position to regulate other social institutions because it has a transparent legal process. Accountability and transparency are integral in regulating social institutions. For example, the tax divisions are given the tax of collecting tax in their correct proportions. If there are problems in these processes, there is a feedback mechanism that allows the law making bodies to review the laws, and an appropriate decision is taken. Another example of the state regulating social institutions is the manner in which medical care is given. The health division is assigned the task of looking into matters concerning healthcare. If they deem that there are problems in the way healthcare is given, these are reported back to the concerned authorities, who can improve the laws governing healthcare institutions. The same procedure is applied to education institutions that are closely monitored under state law.

According to the original U.S. constitution, women did not have much of a status. They were not allowed to vote, and were not given an equal status to men.    

Woman received suffrage in the U.S. slowly and steadily during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. They were officially given their right to vote under the United States Constitution with the 19th Amendment.

The Equal Rights Amendment was first introduced in Congress in 1923 under the national Womens Party. It was a proposed amendment to the US Constitution that intended to give equal rights to all individuals. It prescribed that no one could be denied equal rights under the federal, state, or local law on the basis of sex. The ERA was re-written in 1943 by Alice Paul. Her definition is still used to day Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex.

Women in the U.S. have equal citizenship rights as men do. If a man can marry a woman from another country and bring her to live in the US, so can an American woman do the same. However, this is not all that holding citizenship implies there are complete responsibilities also given to men and women both as citizens of the United States of America.

Since women have gained equal citizenship as men in the United states, they also have equal rights. This means that they also get to have an equal participatory level as men do.

Laws that gave women rights in the last 40 years

Affirmative Action has led to women serving in the United States military
The Civil Rights Act 1964 This law prevented discrimination against women in a company wit 25 or more people
The Civil Rights This law allowed women rights to education.
The Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978  reproductive rights

Social networks in the internet have become very common in the modern way of life especially among the youths. Facebook is the best social network website in the world with the number of subscribers increasing rapidly. It is estimated that about a two hundred and fifty thousand people join the social network as new members everyday. The networks created through these websites have assisted individuals track down their old friends while creating new others. It is also used by friends to update each other on the happening of their daily lives. However, the networks have in many ways been misused by promoting deviant characters among the young people. Parents should therefore subscribe to the network and become friends with their children in facebook in order to monitor them (Feldman, 2009).

Facebook has become a very common social networking website among the youths. A big number of teenagers today are addicted to facebook. The use of facebook among the young people affects the morals of the children as well as the relationship with others. They have used the network to spread information that promotes deviant behaviors among children. Spending a lot of time online as a result of addiction has also negatively affected their performance in school as well as their social relationships. There is therefore a need for parents to monitor how their children use the network. They can effectively monitor their children only by being part of the network where they can be friends to their children and possibly friends to their childrens friends. This will assist in creating the impression that the parents are not outdated by being part of the modern technology. It will also make it easier for the parents to influence their childrens behaviors (Feldman, 2009).

It is important to note that teenagers have facebook accounts because their peers and friends have them. It is therefore impossible to deter the young people from joining such social networks. However, facebook does not allow people below the age of thirteen years to open accounts. Moreover, the identity of the individual is protected to eliminate all possible risks associated with online predators. Despite this, many children lie about their age in order to create accounts and be like their friends. Parents should be aware of this fact. The only option they may have is to monitor their children by being their friends on facebook (Waller, 2010).

Children are under pressure to have accounts on facebook due to the wave in the society. Parents have had a difficult time determining at what age they should allow their children to join these social networks. The minimum age of thirteen which is required to join the social network is also very vulnerable. However, rather than parents blocking their teenagers from joining the social networks which is likely to result into resentments, they can allow them to create accounts in the social networks and create theirs to monitor them. This may be better that dealing with the disagreement and deterioration of the relationship between the parent and the teenagers as a result of restriction (Feldman, 2009).

However, there is always a challenge in taking such a move. For example, teenagers get embarrassed when they learn that their parents are monitoring them on the network. It is therefore important for parents to talk to the teenagers before creating an account with an aim of monitoring them. It is important to let them know that their parents are updated on the current changes in technology and advice them on what comment they should leave on their pages as well as the people they interact with. This is easier when the parents are part of the network as compared to when the children think their parents are outdated in terms of modern social networks. It is also important to note that when a parent sits with his or her children and talk about a social network website such as facebook, children will be more than willing to add them as friends in their page. This is basically because children use these social networks to communicate with their friends and relatives. Communication between the parent and the children will be easier and parents will be able to influence their childrens morals through the social network (Feldman, 2009).

However, monitoring of children in the social network websites has been criticized based on the arguments that it is an infringement of the childs privacy. Children like any other person have the freedom to privacy which should be respected by their parents. Facebook recognizes the need to protect the privacy of the individuals which is hard when they are being monitored. For this reason, facebook has developed private controls that enable children to deny their parents access to messages they have posted (Ptchiem, 2010).

In conclusion, even though children should have their freedom of privacy, it is important for parents to monitor their activities in the social network websites such as facebook. This is because of the increased addiction of the youth to the networks, the risk of online predators and development of deviant behaviors transmitted through the networks.

The media is a powerful influence to the people. It can control how people may perceive a certain picture or scenario by creating a notion that can standardize the peoples way of thinking. Aside form the television, the radio, and the internet magazines have the same controlling power to make a difference in a persons point of view. Majority of magazine readers are women. For a woman, reading or simply browsing a magazine, especially the sections that talk about beauty and fashion, can give them satisfaction just like what they get from shopping. Fashion and beauty magazines, however, can be manipulative they make the cover girl the new definition or standard of beauty.

Beauty magazines feature Italian models because of their ideal and model-material body structure. Along with this body is a face of perfection. Several women, like those in the eastern part of the world, admire the Italian women for having an effortless beauty. They think that with features like theirs, even their bare faces can win attention whenever they are in a crowd. However, there is a misconception on the effortless beauty of Italian women. Most women in Italy are not born with utmost perfection they made themselves look the way others perceive perfect beauty. Making oneself beautiful has been part of the Italian culture for centuries now. Most foreigners do not realize the effort of an Italian woman to make herself beautiful. They engage into several beauty regimens before achieving the look we see in magazines. They avoid being caught in public when they are not in their best appearance.

Italian women have been called the most beautiful in the world. Such actresses as Sophia Loren and Gina Lollobrigida lit up movie screens with their glamour and fashion-sense. Their thick, shiny, dark hair, big brown eyes and hour-glass figures made American women envious and anxious to learn their beauty secrets. Their lovely, but under-stated clothes, had a huge influence on American fashion.

Italian actresses who also appear in print advertisements make other women around the world envious of their beauty. Petite frame, overly white and pale complexion, oriental eyes  these features can be rarely seen in magazines. What people are used to see in the cover are those who are tall, slender, and with vibrant eyes  an Italian woman. As a result, those women who have the means go through operations to imitate the Italian beauty. They undergo liposuction, nose lift, skin tanning and other ways which they think will enhance their beauty.

The Italian beauty in magazines can be very inspiring yet it can also be threatening. Italian women invaded the cover of different magazines making other women around the world think that their beauty is not enough. Those who are not satisfied of their looks even regard themselves ugly, leaving their self-esteem bruised.

In beauty and fashion magazines, there are also sections for perfumery. Perfumes also make a woman feel more beautiful. Varieties of luxurious perfumes are from Italy. Italians have developed their skill in making perfumes over the years. They have maintained their favorable reputation in the perfumery business. Moreover, different scents were also developed that can match the personality of the one who will use it.3 Because of this, fragrance is also attached to Italian women making them even more beautiful and appealing to the people worldwide.

Magazines have always been effective in influencing the people, not only do they cater the specific needs of the people. Magazines can even manipulate the people to think that they need products they did not even use before. The use of Italian women in magazines is ways of standardizing a classic definition of beauty making other women feel that they have to look the same way. This is the aspect wherein admiration can lead into unnecessary actions.